I. INTERNATIONAL AUTHORITIES AND PRECEDENTS
1. Draft United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples (UN 1994)
Article
13: "Indigenous peoples have the right to manifest, practice, develop
and teach their spiritual and religious traditions, customs and
ceremonies; the right to maintain, protect, and have access in privacy to
their religious and cultural sites; the right to the use and control of
ceremonial objects; and the right to the repatriation of human remains.
States shall take effective
measures, in conjunction with the indigenous peoples concerned, to ensure
that indigenous sacred places, including burial sites, be preserved,
respected and protected."
Article 12: "Indigenous
peoples have the right to practice and revitalize their cultural
traditions and customs. This includes the right to maintain, protect and
develop the past, present and future manifestations of their cultures,
such as archaeological and historical sites, artefacts, designs,
ceremonies, technologies and visual and performing arts and literature, as
well as the right to the restitution of cultural, intellectual, religious
and spiritual property taken without their free and informed consent or in
violation of their laws, traditions and customs."
Article 25: "Indigenous
peoples have the right to maintain and strengthen their distinctive
spiritual and material relationship with the lands, territories, waters
and coastal seas and other resources which they have traditionally owned
or otherwise occupied or used, and to uphold their responsibilities to
future generations in this regard."
2. C 169, Convention on Indigenous and Tribal People (ILO Convention
1989)
Article 5: "…In applying
the provisions of this Convention:
(a) the social, cultural,
religious and spiritual values and practices of these peoples shall be
recognized and protected, and due account shall be taken of the nature of
the problems which face them both as groups and as individuals;
(b) the integrity of the
values, practices and institutions of these peoples shall be
respected..."
3. American Convention on Human Rights (OAS 1969)
Article
12(1): “Everyone shall have the right to freedom of conscience and of
religion. This right includes
freedom to maintain or to change one’s religion or beliefs, and freedom
to profess or disseminate one’s religion or beliefs, either individually
or together with others, in public or private.
Article 12(2): “No one shall be
subject to restrictions that might impair his freedom to maintain or to
change his religion or beliefs.”
Article 13(1): “Everyone has
the right to freedom of thought and expression.”
Article 16(1): “Everyone has
the right to associate freely for ideological, religious, political,
economic, labor, social, cultural, sports, or other purposes."
4.
American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man (OAS 1948)
Article
III: “Every person has the right freely to profess a religious faith,
and to manifest and practice it both in public and private.”
5. Convention on the Protection of the Archeological, Historical, and
Artistic Heritage of the American Nations (Convention of San Salvador)
(Santiago, Chile 1976)
Article
2(a): defining "cultural property" as "[m]onuments,
objects, fragments of ruined buildings, and archeological materials
belonging to American cultures existing prior to contact with European
culture, as well as remains of human beings, fauna, and flora related to
such cultures.
Article 9: "Each State Party
shall prevent by all available means any unlawful excavation in its
territory or any removal of cultural property therefrom".
6. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (UN 1966)
Article
18(1): “Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion. This right
shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his
choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and
in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship,
observance, practice and teaching. (2) No one shall be subject to coercion
which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of
his choice.”
Article 18(3): “Freedom to
manifest one’s religion or beliefs may be subject only to such
limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public
safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and freedoms of
others. (4) The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to have
respect for the liberty of parents and, when applicable, legal guardians
to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in
conformity with their own convictions.”
7.
International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial
Discrimination (UN 1965)
Article 5(d)(vii)(ix): “States
Parties undertake to prohibit and to eliminate racial discrimination in
all its forms and to guarantee the right of everyone freedom of
thought, conscience and religion...freedom of opinion and
expression... [and] freedom of peaceful assembly and association."
8.
Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN 1989)
Article 14(1): “State Parties
shall respect the right of the child to freedom of thought, conscience and
religion.”
9. Convention Against Discrimination in Education (UNESCO 1960)
Article
5 1(b): “no person or group of persons should be compelled to receive
religious instruction inconsistent with his or their conviction;”
10. Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UN 1948)
Article 18: “Everyone has the
right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion
or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.”
11. Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or
Ethnic Religious or Linguistic Minorities (UN 1990)
Article
1(1): "States shall protect the existence and the national or ethnic,
cultural, religious and linguistic identity of minorities within their
respective territories and shall encourage conditions for the promotion of
that identity.”
12. Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of
Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (UN 1981)
Article 1(1): ”Everyone shall
have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
This right shall include freedom to have a religion or whatever
belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community
with others and in pubic or in private, to manifest his religion or belief
in worship, observance, practice and teaching.”
Article 1(2): “No one shall be
subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have a religion or
belief of his choice.”
Article
4(1): “All States shall take effective measures to prevent and eliminate
discrimination on the grounds of religion or belief.”
13. Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit
Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (UNESCO
1970)
Article 13: "The States
Parties to this Convention also undertake, consistent with the laws of
each State: (a) To prevent by all appropriate means transfers of ownership
of cultural property likely to promote the illicit import or export of
such property; (b) to ensure that their competent services co-operate in
facilitating the earliest possible restitution of illicitly exported
cultural property to its rightful owner".
14.
African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter 1981)
Article 8: “Freedom of
conscience, the profession and free practice of religion shall be
guaranteed. No one may, subject to law and order, be submitted to measures
restricting the exercise of these freedoms."
15.
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms (ROME 1950)
Article 9(1): “Everyone has the
right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes
freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion
or belief, in worship,
teaching, practice and observance.”
Article 9(2): “Freedom to
manifest one’s religion or belief shall be subject only to such
limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic
society in the interest of public safety, for the protection of public
order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms
of others.”
16. World Bank Operational Manual, "Description and Sample Outline
of an Environmental Action Plan, Operational Directive 4.02 , (July 1992)
Para. 4: "A Comprehensive
EAP [Environmental Assessment Plan] normally covers a broad range of
topics similar to those listed below.
The weight accorded to each item covered depends on local
circumstances.
(b) An analysis of major
cross-sectoral issues (e.g., demography, public health and safety,
cultural and natural heritage) and socioeconomic factors important to the
environment and resource use. Basic
information required for the cross sectoral analysis includes the
following:
(iii) Cultural and natural
heritage: Data on environmental or human induced risk to the preservation
of specific major sites, structures, and remains of archeological,
historical, cultural, religious, or aesthetic value; identification of
natural resources of particular biological, ecological, medical, or
touristic value."
17. Alliance for Sustainable Development documents signed by the
Presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and
Panama and a Representative of the Prime Minister of Belize, at the
Central American Ecological Summit for Sustainable Development in Managua,
Nicaragua, (October 12, 1994)
"Annex II: Commitments of
the Alliance: Cultural Heritage - We hereby instruct the ministers of
culture, or the pertinent authorities in the countries, to submit within a
period of six months, draft agreements on the following topics to the
respective ministries of foreign affairs:
-Central American Agreement for
Exhibitions of Archaeological, Historical and Artistic Objects
-Central American Agreement for
the Restitution and Return of Illegally Removed Cultural Assets."
18.
Informe de la relatora Especial de la Subcomisión de Prevención
de Discriminaciones y Protección a las Minorías sobre la “Protección
del patrimonio de los pueblos indígenas" (UN 1986)
159. Los
pueblos indígenas han sido vulnerables a la pérdida de su patrimonio
como entidades diferentes. Como por lo general
los gobiernos los consideran “atrasados”, han sido objeto de
políticas agresivas de asimilación cultural. Con frecuencia sus artes y
conocimientos no se consideraron como tesoros mundiales sino que
simplemente se destruyeron durante el proceso de colonización.
A menudo se dio más valor a sus cuerpos que a su cultura, que fue
coleccionada por museos. El
turismo, una creciente demanda de arte “primitivo” por los
consumidores y el desarrollo de la biotechnología amenazan ahora la
capacidad de los pueblos indígenas para proteger lo que queda de su
patrimonio.
II.
DOMESTIC AUTHORITIES AND PRECEDENTS
19.
Canada
- Canadian Constitution Act, 1982
Part
I: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Section
2 Fundamental Freedoms
2. "Everyone has the
following fundamental freedoms:
(a) freedom of conscience and
religion
(b) freedom of thought, belief,
opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other means of
communication.
(c) freedom of peaceful assembly;
and
(d) freedom of association."
- Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Vol. 4 Ch 7 s.1.4 to s.
2.1
“It
is important that Aboriginal spirituality be recognized and affirmed by
both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal institutions.”
“The Commission urges
reconciliation to ensure that Aboriginal people have the freedom to
practice their traditional spirituality.”
20. Colombia
Constitución Política de Colombia
Artículo
68. ...”En los establecimientos del Estado ninguna persona podrá ser
obligada a recibir educación religiosa”…
21. Chile
Ley No. 19.253
Artículo
19: "Los indígenas gozarán del derecho a ejercer comunitariamente
actividades en los sitios sagrados o ceremoniales, cementerios, canchas de
guillatún, apachetas, campos deportivos y otros espacios territoriales de
uso cultural o recreativo, que sean de propiedad fiscal”.
22. Ecuador
Constitución Política del Estado Ecuatorio
Art
23: Sin perjuicio de los derechos establecidos en esta Constitución y en
los instrumentos internacionales vigentes, el Estado reconocerá y
garantizará a las personas los siguientes: (11) La libertad de
conciencia; la libertad de religión, expresada en forma individual o
colectiva, en público o en privado. Las personas practicarán libremente
el culto que profesen, con las únicas limitaciones que la ley prescriba
para proteger y respetar la diversidad, la pluralidad, la seguridad y los
derechos de los demás.
23.
United
States
- Executive Order to Protect American Indian Sacred Sites (May 24,
1996)
Section
1: US executive branch agencies “shall to the extent practicable,
permitted by law, and not clearly inconsistent with essential agency
functions” “(1) accommodate access to and ceremonial use of Indian
sacred sites by Indian religious practitioners and (2) avoid adversely
affecting the physical integrity of such sacred sites.
Where appropriate, agencies shall maintain the confidentiality of
sacred sites.”
Section 2(b): agencies with
management responsibilities over federal land will report on “procedures
implemented or proposed to facilitate consultation with appropriate Indian
tribes and religious leaders”.
- National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA), 16 U.S.C. 470
et seq.
Under this Act, the US government
took a more aggressive role in preserving its “historical and cultural
foundations” by “accelerat[ing] its historic preservation programs and
activities” and “assist[ing] State and local governments, Indian
tribes and Native Hawaiian organization” in their own preservation
programs through increased consultation, and exchanges of financial
assistance. § 470. A
National Register of Historic Places was established, §470(a), whereby
sites on this list can include “[p]roperties of traditional religious
and cultural importance to an Indian tribe or Native Hawaiian
organization” §470(d)(6). Consultations
with Indian tribes or Native Hawaiians are required where they may
“attach[] religious and cultural significance to properties...” §470(d)(6).
Once on the list, the effect on the site must be considered during any
planning or execution of any “proposed federal or federally assisted
undertaking.” §470(f). Tribes must be consulted during this process as
well. 36 C.F.R. §800. Moreover,
a "tribe may assume all of any part of the functions of a State
Historic Preservation Officer...with respect to tribal lands..." §470(d)(2).
Lastly, the Act provides that the federal agency may keep the
location of these sites confidential where there is fear that disclosure
could cause “(1) significant invasion of privacy; (2) risk harm to the
historic resource; or (3) impede the use of a traditional religious site
by practitioners.” §470(w)(3).
- Archeological Resource Protection Act, 16 U.S.C. (470aa-470mm)
The
Act’s purpose is to “[s]ecure, for the present and future benefit of
the American people, the protection of archaeological resources and sites
which are on public lands and Indian lands” and requires a permit before
any person can excavate or removal any archeological resource.” §
470cc(a). Where the permit issued “may result in harm to or destruction
of any religious or cultural site...the Federal land manger shall notify
any Indian tribe which may consider the site as having religious or
cultural importance.” §470cc(c). “In the case of any permits for the
excavation or removal of any archaeological resource located on Indian
lands, the permit may be granted [by the Federal land manager] only after
obtaining the consent of the Indian or Indian tribe owning or having
jurisdiction over such lands. The
permit shall include such terms and conditions as may be requested by such
Indian or Indian tribe.Ӥ 470cc(g)(2).
- Native American Graves
Protection and Repatriation Act, 25 USC 3001 et seq.
Provides for the repatriation to
Indian tribes of Native American human remains, funerary objects, sacred
objects, and cultural patrimony that are excavated or discovered on
federal or tribal lands or that are currently in the control of federal
agencies or museums receiving federal funding.
24.
Guatemala
- Agreement on Identity
and Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Article III. C. Spirituality
1. Recognition is
accorded to the importance and special nature of Mayan spirituality as an
essential component in the Mayan vision of the world and in the
transmittal of its values, as well as those of the other indigenous
peoples.
2. The Government
undertakes to secure respect for the exercise of this spirituality in all
its manifestations, and particularly for the right to practice it, both in
public and in private by means of education, worship and observance.
Recognition is also given to the importance of the respect due to
indigenous spiritual guides and to sacred ceremonies and holy places.
3. The Government shall
promote, in the Guatemalan Congress, the reform of article 66 of the
Constitution to stipulate that the State recognizes, respects and protects
the various forms of spirituality practised by the Maya, Garifuna and
Xinca peoples.
D. Temples, ceremonial
centres and holy places
1. Recognition is
accorded to the historical value and current importance of temples and
ceremonial centres as part of the cultural, historical and spiritual
heritage of the Maya and other indigenous peoples.
Temples and ceremonial centres
situated in areas protected by the State as archaeological sites.
2. According to the
Guatemalan Constitution, temples and ceremonial centres of archaeological
value constitute part of the national cultural heritage. As such, they are
the property of the State and must be protected. In that context, measures
must be taken to ensure that this principle is not violated in the case of
temples and ceremonial centres of archaeological value situated or found
on private property.
3. The right of the
Maya, Garifuna and Xinca peoples to participate in the conservation and
administration of such places is recognized. To guarantee this right the
Government undertakes to promote, with the participation of indigenous
peoples, legal measures to ensure redefinition of State entities
responsible for this function in order to make this right effective.
4. Changes shall be made
in the regulations for the protection of ceremonial centres in
archaeological areas to ensure that such regulations permit the practice
of spirituality and cannot be made an impediment to the exercise of
spiritual values. The Government shall promote, in cooperation with
indigenous spiritual organizations, regulations governing access to
ceremonial centres to guarantee the free practice of indigenous
spirituality in conditions of respect laid down by spiritual guides.
Holy
places
5. It is recognized that
there are other holy places in which indigenous spirituality and, in
particular, Mayan spirituality, is traditionally practised and which need
to be preserved. A commission formed of representatives of the Government
and indigenous organizations and of indigenous spiritual guides shall be
set up to identify these places and establish rules for their
preservation."
25.
Mexico
Ley de derechos de los pueblos y comunidades indígenas
del Estado de Oaxaca
Artículo
27: "Los pueblos y las comunidades indígenas tienen derecho a
practicar sus propias ceremonias religiosas, tanto en las áreas indígenas
como en las que no tienen predominio indígena, respetando la Ley de
Asociaciones Religiosas y Culto Públiico”.
26. Nicaragua
Constitución de Nicaragua
Artículo
128: “El Estado protege el patrimonio arqueológico, histórico, lingüístico,
cultural y artístico de la nación”.
Artículo 180: “Las Comunidades de la Costa Atlántica
tienen el derecho de vivir y desarrollarse bajo las formas de organización
social que corresponden a sus tradiciones históricas y culturales.
El Estado garantiza a esta comunidades el disfrute de sus recursos
naturales, la efectividad de sus formas de propiedad comunal y la libre
elección de sus autoridades y representantes.
Asimismo garantiza la preservación de sus culturas y lenguas,
religiones y costumbres”.
Regimen Especial de la Comarca Kuna Yala (Ley 2 de
1938 -modificada por la Ley 99 de 1998)
Artículo
13: "El Congreso General de la Cultura Kuna es el organismo de
expresión religioso de protección, conservación y divulgación del
patrimonio histórico cultural del pueblo Kuna..."
Artículo 37: "El Estado reconoce, garantiza y
respeta que la Religión Ibeorgum es de la Comarca Kuna Yala”.
Artículo 38: "Los sitios y objectos arqueológicos,
documentos, monumentos históricos y cualquier otro bien mueble e inmueble
que sean testimonio del pasado pueblo Kuna, son del Patrimonio de la
Comarca y las cuales estarán bajo la custodia del Congreso.
Para tales efectos, el Congreso, a través de la Comisión del
Centro de Investigación Kuna buscará los mecanísmos adecuados para
custodio y conservación, conjuntamente con la Dirección Nacional del
Patrimonio Histórico del
Instituto Nacional de Cultura”.
28. St.
Kitts and Nevis
Constitution of St. Kitts and Nevis (1983)
Article
11(1): "Except with his own consent, a person shall not be hindered
in the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience, including freedom of
thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or belief and
freedom, either alone or in community with others, and both in public and
in private, to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship,
teaching, practice and observance."
29. Trinidad and Tobago
Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (1980)
Article 4(h): "It is hereby
recognized and declared that in Trinidad and Tobago there have existed and
shall continue to exist without discrimination by reason of race, origin,
colour, religion or sex, the following fundamental human rights and
freedoms, namely: ... freedom of conscience and religious belief and
observance"
30.
Vincent
and St. Grenadines
Constitution of St. Vincent and St. Grenadines
Article
9(1): "Except with his own consent, a person shall not be hindered in
the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience, including freedom of thought
and of religion, freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom,
either alone or in community with others, and both in public and in
private, to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship,
teaching, practice and observance. "(4) A person shall not be
compelled to take any oath which is contrary to his religion or belief or
to take any oath in a manner that is contrary to his religion or belief.
(5) Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall be
held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section to the
extent that the law in question makes provision which is reasonably
required- b. for the purpose of protecting the rights and freedoms of
other persons including the right to observe and practice any religion
without the unsolicited intervention or members of any other
religion..."
31. Suriname
Constitución de Suriname Article
18: "Everyone has the right of freedom of religion and philosophy of
life."
32. Venezuela
- Ley Indígena
Artículo
6: "Para conservar el patrimonio arqueológico nacional, quedan
prohibidas búsqueda y extracción de huacas en los cementerlos indígenas,
con excepción de exploraciones científicas autorizadas por instituciones
oficiales. En todo caso éstas
necesitarán la autorización de la comunidad indígena y de la CONAI”.
- Constitución Política de la República de
Venezuela
Artículo 121: "Los pueblos indígenas tienen
derecho a mantener y desarrollar su identidad étnica y cultural,
cosmovisión, valores, espiritualidad y sus lugares sagrados y de culto.
El Estado fomentará la valoración y difusión de las
manifestaciones culturales de los pueblos indígenas, los cuales tienen
derecho a una educación propia y a un régimen educativo de carácter
intercultural y bilingüe, atendiendo a sus particularidades
socioculturales, valores y tradiciones".
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